Proto-Romance language
Proto-Romance | |
---|---|
Reconstruction of | Romance languages |
Region | Roman Empire |
Era | c. 3rd–4th centuries CE? |
Reconstructed ancestors | |
Lower-order reconstructions |
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Proto-Romance is the comparatively reconstructed ancestor of all Romance languages. It reflects a late variety of spoken Latin prior to regional fragmentation.
Phonology
Vowels
Monophthongs
Front | Central | Back | |
---|---|---|---|
Close | i | u | |
Near-close | ɪ | ʊ | |
Close-mid | e | o | |
Open-mid | ɛ | ɔ | |
Open | a |
Diphthong
The only phonemic diphthong was /au̯/.
Phonetics
- Vowels were lengthened in stressed open syllables.
- Stressed /ɛ ɔ/ may have yielded the incipient diphthongs [e͡ɛ o͡ɔ] when followed, in the same word, by a syllable containing a close vowel.
- Whatever the precise outcome, Maiden argues that this phenomenon would have been limited, at the Proto-Romance stage, to open syllables. That is, it would have applied only to instances of /ɛ ɔ/ subjected to stressed-open-syllable lengthening.
Constraints
- Neither a distinct /ɛ/ nor /ɔ/ occurred in unstressed position on account of having merged into /e/ and /o/ respectively.
- Neither a distinct /i/ nor /u/ occurred in the second syllable of words with the structure /ˌσσˈσσ/ (such as càntatóre 'singer') on account of having merged into /ɪ/ and /ʊ/ respectively.
Consonants
Labial | Coronal | Palatal | Velar | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
non-labial | labial | |||||||||
Nasal | m mʲ | n nʲ | ||||||||
Plosive | p pʲ | b bʲ | t tʲ | d dʲ | j | k kʲ | ɡ ɡʲ | kʷ | ||
Fricative | f fʲ | β βʲ | s sʲ | |||||||
Vibrant | r rʲ | |||||||||
Approximant | l lʲ |
Palatalized consonants
- There is disagreement over whether Proto-Romance had phonemic palatalization. For the purposes of this article, it is assumed that it did.
- Palatalized consonants tended to geminate in intervocalic position, though the extent of this varied by consonant.
- There appears to have been a tendency to merge /dʲ/, /ɡʲ/, and occasionally /βʲ/ into /j/.
- /tʲ/ was affricated to [t͡sʲ] or [t͡zʲ].
Phonetics
- A prop-vowel [ɪ] was added before word-initial /sC/ clusters not already preceded by a vowel (as in /sˈtare/ [ɪsˈtaːɾe]).
- The sequence /ɡn/ was likely realized as [ɣn] at first, with subsequent developments varying by region.
- /j/ was likely realized as [ʝ] or [ɟ], possibly with gemination in intervocalic position.
- /d/ and /ɡ/ might have been fricatives or approximants in intervocalic position.
- /s/ might have been apico-alveolar.
- /ll/ might have been retroflex.
- /f/ might have been bilabial.
Constraints
- /b bʲ/ did not occur intervocalically on account of having merged into /β βʲ/.
- The same merger may also have occurred after the consonants /r l/, but this is not entirely clear.
- /kʷ/ did not occur before back (rounded) vowels on account of having delabialized to /k/.
Morphology
Note: the spellings provided below are based on those used in Latin and not indicative of reconstructed Proto-Romance pronunciation.
Nouns
Nouns appear to have had three cases: a nominative, an accusative, and a combined genitive-dative.
Class | I | II | III.M | III.F | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Number | SG | PL | SG | PL | SG | PL | SG | PL | ||||
NOM | capra | capras | caballus | caballi | pater | patres~patri | mater | matres | ||||
ACC | caballum | caballos | patrem | patres | ||||||||
GEN-DAT | capre | capris | caballo | caballis | patri | patris | matri | matris | ||||
Translation | goat | horse | father | mother |
Several Class III nouns had inflections that differed by syllable count or stress position.
Number | SG | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
NOM | homo | pastor | soror | |||
ACC | hominem | pastorem | sororem | |||
GEN-DAT | homini | pastori | sorori | |||
Translation | man | pastor | sister |
Some nouns were pluralized with -a or -ora, having originally been neuter in Classical Latin. Their singular was treated as grammatically masculine, while their plural was treated as feminine.
Class | II | III | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Number | SG | PL | SG | PL | ||
NOM | brachium | brachia | tempus | tempora | ||
ACC | ||||||
GEN-DAT | brachio | brachiis | tempori | temporis | ||
Translation | arm | time |
Such nouns, due to their plurals, were often reanalyzed as collective feminine nouns.
Number | SG | PL | SG | PL | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Original noun | folium | folia | lignum | ligna | ||
Fem. variant | folia | folias | ligna | lignas | ||
Translation | leaf, leaves | firewood |
Adjectives
Positive
Class | I/II | III | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gender | M | F | M | F | ||||||||
Number | SG | PL | SG | PL | SG | PL | SG | PL | ||||
NOM | bonus | boni | bona | bonas | viridis | virides~viridi | viridis | virides | ||||
ACC | bonum | bonos | viridem | virides | viridem | |||||||
GEN-DAT | bono | bonis | bone | bonis | viridi | viridis | viridi | viridis | ||||
Translation | good | green |
Comparative
Proto-Romance inherited the comparative suffix -ior from Latin, but only in a limited number of adjectives.
Number | SG | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Gender | M+F | N | ||
NOM | melior | melius | ||
ACC | meliorem | |||
Translation | better |
Otherwise, the typical way to form a comparative seems to have been to add either plus or magis (meaning 'more') to a positive adjective.
Superlative
With the exception of a few fossilized forms, such as /ˈpɛssɪmʊs/ 'worst', superlatives were formed by adding an intensifying adverb or prefix (/mʊltu, bɛne, per-, tras-/ etc.) to a positive adjective. Comparative forms could also have been made superlative by adding a demonstrative adjective.
Possessive
Feminine singular forms shown below. In certain cases there was an opposition between 'strong' (stressed) and 'weak' (unstressed) variants.
1P | 2P | 3P | INT | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
SG | mea~ma | tua~ta | sua~sa | cuia | |
PL | nostra | vostra |
Pronouns
Personal
Numerous variant forms appear to have existed. For the third-person genitive-dative inflections, there appears to have been an opposition between 'strong' (stressed) and 'weak' (unstressed) variants, as also with the possessive adjectives.
1P | 2P | 3P.M | 3P.F | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Number | SG | PL | SG | PL | SG | PL | SG | PL | ||||
NOM | ego | nos | tu | vos | ille~illi | illi | illa | illas | ||||
ACC | me~mene | te~tene | illum | illos | ||||||||
GEN-DAT | mi~mibi | nobis | ti~tibi | vobis | illi~illui | illis~illorum | illi~illaei | illis~illorum |
Relative
Gender | M+F | N | |
---|---|---|---|
NOM | qui | quod | |
ACC | quem | ||
GEN-DAT | cui |
The interrogative pronouns were the same, except that the neuter nominative-accusative form was quid.
Verbs
Proto-Romance verbs belonged to three main classes, each characterized by a different thematic vowel. Their conjugations were built on three stems and involved various combinations of mood, aspect, and tense.
Present indicative
Verb class | 1P | 2P | 3P | Translation | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SG | PL | SG | PL | SG | PL | ||||||
I | canto | cantamus | cantas | cantatis | cantat | cantant | sing | ||||
II.a | video | videmus | vides | videtis | videt | videunt~vidunt~vident | see | ||||
II.b | vendo | vendimus | vendis | venditis | vendit | vendunt~vendent | sell | ||||
III | dormo~dormio | dormimus | dormis | dormitis | dormit | dormunt~dorment | sleep | ||||
Irregular | sum | sumus~semus | es | estis~setis~sutis | est | sunt | be | ||||
habeo~aio | habemus | aes~as | habetis | aet~at | aunt~aent~ant | have | |||||
dao | damus | das | datis | dat | daunt~daent~dant | give | |||||
vado~vao | imus | vais~vas | itis | vait~vat | vaunt~vaent~vant | go |
Participles
As in Latin, present participles had an active sense and inflected like class III adjectives, while past participles had a passive sense and inflected like class I/II adjectives. Regular forms would have been as follows (in the accusative feminine singular):
Type | PRES.ACT | Translation | PERF.PASS | Translation | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
I | amantem | adoring | amatam | adored | ||
II | habentem | having | habutam | had | ||
III | finentem | finishing | finitam | finished |